Evolution in biology

The development of life on Earth has brought about a large number of thousands of species. Hereditary proof uncovers that people share a typical predecessor with life shapes as not the same as us as microscopic organisms and corn plants. In mid 1800s, the wellspring of Earth's surprising assorted variety of living things was fervently questioned. Numerous individuals accepted that all species had appeared simultaneously in the inaccessible past.In 1831 Charles Darwin cruised to South America, and during the long Atlantic intersection Darwin examined topography and gathered marine life. During tops along the coast and at different islands, he watched different types of living beings in situations going from sandy shores to high mountains. Darwin's merging of his perceptions of the common world with the thoughts of others drove him to suggest that development could happen by method of a procedure called regular choice. The historical backdrop of life on Earth traverses about 4 billion years.It is an account of how animal categories started, endure or went wiped out, and waited or spread into new situations. Microevolution is the name for total hereditary changes that may offer ascent to new species, Macroevolution is the name for the enormous scope designs, severs, and paces of progress among gatherings of species. An individual fish, bloom, or individual doesn't develop. Advancement happens just when there is change in the hereditary cosmetics of entire populaces of life forms. In science, a populace is a gathering of people of similar species possessing a given area.In hypothesis, the individuals from a populace have acquired a similar number and sorts of qualities. These qualities make up the populace's genetic supply. Change is destructive when it modifies a quality with the end goal that an influenced individual can't endure or imitate just as others. For instance, for us people, little cuts are normal. On the other hand, an advantageous quality improves som e part of a person's working in the earth thus improves odds of enduring and duplicating. An unbiased attribute, for example, connected ear cartilage in people, doesn't help nor hurt survival.Darwin detailed his hypothesis of development by common choice by associating his comprehension of legacy with specific highlights of populaces. In 1859 he distributed his thoughts in an exemplary book, On the Origin of Species. We can communicate the fundamental pints of Darwin's knowledge as follows: 1. The people ofa populace fluctuate in their body structure, working, and conduct. 2. Numerous varieties can be passed from age to age. 3. In each situation, a few variants ofa attribute are more beneficial than others. 4.Natural choice is the distinction in endurance and proliferation that we see in people who have diverse variant of a characteristic. 5. A populace is developing when a few types of an attribute are turning out to be pretty much regular comparative with different structures. 6. After some time, moves in the cosmetics of genetic stocks have been answerable for the stunning decent variety of living things on Earth. Regular determination isn't the main procedure that can alter the general quantities of various alleles in a genetic stock. This sort of genetic stock tweaking is called hereditary drift.The cosmetics of a genetic supply likewise can change as people move into or out of a populaces hereditarily comparable. For people and other explicitly replicating life form, an animal groups is a hereditary unit comprising of at least one populaces of living being that normally intently takes after one another truly and physiologically. This development of hereditary contrasts between secluded populaces is called difference. At the point when the hereditary contrasts are extraordinary to such an extent that individuals from the two populaces can't interbreed, speciation has happened: the populaces have become separate species.

Red Tsar Essay Example

Red Tsar Paper At the point when Stalin rose to control in 1929 he asserted to the Russian open that he was a commit devotee of Leninism; his trademark Lenin is consistently with us1 implied that Stalin needed to show that he was so like Lenin. Anyway Stalin stated his capacity at the head of government much like the Tsars by utilizing strategies of dread and purposeful publicity. Stalins individual tyranny implied he had solid components of being Red Tsar as he built up irrefutable standard, this thought of being a Red Tsar originated from the conviction that Stalin wasnt focused on socialism, as his customary thoughts were suggestive of Tsarist totalitarian principle, so adequately he was a combination between the two decision styles. As Stalin wished to depict himself as a God-like figure; this made him a disconnected pioneer who endured no analysis, like the style of administering under the Tsars, as the two heads excused clergymen at their own will and decided to follow up on their very own sentiments, for instance like the Russification strategy of utilized by all the Tsars, yet specifically Alexander II and the nationalistic strategies of Stalin. Stalins government was top-down2, and not at all like Lenin and Khrushchev, Stalin was extremely careful about how much his individual gathering individuals knew. In this way he utilized a reasonable chain of command, where data was retained from lower individuals. We will compose a custom article test on Red Tsar explicitly for you for just $16.38 $13.9/page Request now We will compose a custom paper test on Red Tsar explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer We will compose a custom paper test on Red Tsar explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer The Tsars depended on dedication of elites to reinforce government, specifically the respectability and the Russian Orthodox Church, who assisted with keeping firm authority over the Russian individuals. Despite the fact that the facts demonstrate that both Lenin and Stalin encircle themselves with steadfast I lites called nomenklatura, these elites turned out to be progressively significant under Stalin, as the impact of the more extensive CCP was diminished he slipped into his own autocracy. The development under Stalin of the Party Secretariat, which was made under Lenin, implied there was a development in administration, something which socialist belief system disliked. As the General Secretary of the CCP Stalin had impact over all territories of the gathering, while the Politburo turned into the most powerful body, as it controlled the activities of all administration offices. In this manner the gathering turned out to be increasingly brought together, as the impact of the grass-roots turned out to be less critical. Consequently antiquarians, for example, Richard Pipes guarantee that Leninism caused Stalinism, as Lenins party took after a more mystery request than a gathering in the typically acknowledged sense3, this prompted an elitist structure, implying that Stalins fascism was unavoidable. Albeit some can't help contradicting this view as they comprehend we would never have anticipated the degree to which Stalin utilized an individual autocracy. The majority rules system strived for during the revolution4 and declined into a fascism bound with oversight and patriotism suggestive of Tsarist absolutism, as just perspectives integral of the system were permitted and media from outside Russia were disallowed inspired by a paranoid fear of radicalisation. Along these lines concerning the sort and running of government Stalin shows up more like his Tsarist antecedents than any of his Communist confidants, as he depended on elites, organization, elitism and a firmly controlled government, in this manner this makes him a Red Tsar. Both Lenin and Stalin had faith in a solid inner state, in which the gathering had unlimited oversight in the running of government. Anyway Lenin didn't have confidence in a making of a faction of character as Stalin did, as Stalin built up himself a s the wellspring of all wisdom5, this glorification as the Father of Russia6 never showed up in such extraordinary power under Lenin nor Khrushchev. In this way student of history Moshe Lewin contends that Stalins arrangement of government was a half breed of Marxism and Tsarism7, as a production of a faction of character contains hardly any Marxist-Leninist roots, however harkens back to the Russian convention of pioneer love. Anyway Stalin and Khrushchev can be viewed as comparative as the two chiefs utilized cunning8 and turn doctoring. Be that as it may, there are clear contrasts, as Khrushchev came up short on the sensitive idea of Stalin and the Tsars. He asserted Stalin was a litsedi meaning a man of numerous faces9, along these lines there is an equal among Stalin and the Tsars, as both settled on imprudent choices in a spirit of meanness, specifically the powerless Tsar Nicholas II, who left his significant other Alexandrina accountable for Russia in 1915 when he took direct charge of the military. In addition Khrushchev decried Stalin and his strategies for Terror in his de-Stalinisation discourse when he rose to control in 1956. Similitudes between the Tsars and Stalin can likewise be drawn between the awful temper and ruthless natures of the two rulers. This is shown by when hirelings found Stalins wifes passing they were hesitant to let him know, these Little People had a sensible repugnance for breaking awful news to the Tsars and Stalin, and they fell swoon with fear10. In this manner the two rulers instructed and alarmed the Russian individuals with their tempers, making Stalin a Red Tsar. The dread that Stalin executed was strengthened by his utilization of utilization of belief system, which was suggestive of the strict perspectives under the Tsars, as his utilization of glorification kept a tight rule on the Russian individuals. This utilization of philosophy prompted his verifiable guideline like that experience under the Tsars, yet Stalin underscored partition of the state from the Church, dissimilar to The Tsarist absolutist principle was reinforced by the help from the Russian Orthodox Church. The Tsars and the Church bolstered each other for common intrigue, and the lessons of the Church supported autocracy11, since most of the populace was strict, resistance to the legislature was viewed as an immediate test to God and the Divine Right of the Tsar, this made any restriction disagreeable. In spite of the fact that this makes Stalin not the same as the Tsars, it doesn't make him like the other socialist pioneers, as Stalin grasped a negligible increment in strict resilience, and didn't crusade against religion nor advocate skepticism like Lenin or Khrushchev. Stalins severe techniques adjust him to the Tsars, especially Alexander III, whose standard was known as The Reaction, he supported modernisation and the conviction that instruction was dangerous12. Like Stalin, Alexander III accepted that training ought to be exacting and formal, while Marxist-Leninism which indicated less respect for formal instruction. Despite the fact that Lenin and Stalin were fundamentally the same as in a portion of their convictions, for example, the faith in a monopolistic gathering, a solid express, the requirement for sensational changes inside society13 to make Russia a communist state. Anyway dissimilar to Lenin, Stalin didn't accept that the socialist development should spread into the West outside the USSR. Regardless of this Stalin exported socialism during the Cold War, empowering the spread of socialism toward the East in nations like China and Korea. This additionally proceeded into Khrushchevs rule, when he indicated support for the improvement of socialism in Cuba. In any case, from the start Stalins approach of Socialism in one nation put him beside most of socialists and indicated a total disloyalty of Marxist convictions. As Marxism was a worldwide development engaging all the laborers of the world, and a development which upbraided patriotism. However, Stalins patriotism in structure, communist in content14, harkened back to the Great Russian Empire under rulers, for example, Peter the Great and Ivan the Terrible15, this patriotism constrained the Russian populace into nationalism, similar to that accomplished under the Tsars, which was never experienced to a similar degree under Lenin or Khrushchev. This is a clarification for Stains conviction that non-Russians ought to be shaped into Russians. Though Marxist-Leninism expressed that non-Russians ought to stay in Russia un-upset, Lenin authorized this through his Decree of Nationalities in 1917. Along these lines Stalins patriotism adjusts him to the Tsars arrangement of Russification16, which constrained each one of those nationalities living in Russia to communicate in Russian. Regardless of Stalins patriot convictions, Stalinism was as yet gotten from Leninism, and they had a few likenesses, for example, doubt of organization, the conviction the accomplishment of an idealistic Russia and both having had a disdain of praise around other people 17 . In spite of the fact that Lenin and Stalin had some comparable qualities, as their center convictions were gotten from the lessons of Marx. Anyway Lenin never endeavored to fabricate a faction of character and detested the term Leninism, as he thought of himself as a Marxist not at all like Stalin, who needed to build up the characters of the populace under his own glorification. Hence McCauley contends that Stalin controlled Marxism and Leninism for his own means18 as McCauley trusts Stalin was not a genuine socialist as he didn't appropriately grasp the belief system. Also his attention on customary convictions, for example, family esteems, the significance of marriage, and the execution of arrangements, for example, making divorce troublesome and prohibiting fetus removal. These convictions made Stalin more customary in his qualities than Khrushchev and Lenin who both accepted shows, for example, marriage were obsolete in the public arena. While the style and functions of High Stalinism in 1930s appeared to be not so much Leninist but rather more an inversion to the past, as Stalins semi-strict symbolism, unrefined patriotism and illustrations with the extraordinary condition of building Tsars like Ivan the terrible19 make him apparently Tsariest. Subsequently in spite of the fact that Stalin may share shared a few philosophies for all intents and purpose with the socialists, a considerable lot of his key qualities made him altogether different, as despite the fact that Marxism started the majority of their convictions Stalin had numerous conventional convictions that neither Lenin nor Khrushchev held. Stalins out and out mercilessness, outperformed the Tsars as well as

The First Rule for Essay Writing: Conducting Your California Bar Essay Writing With Samples and Trainings

The First Rule for Essay Writing: Conducting Your California Bar Essay Writing With Samples and TrainingsConducting your Cal State B.A. essay writing with samples and trainings can help you a lot. This is because they are the best tools for any kind of essay writing to give it a perfect look.When you write an essay, what is most important is to keep it as simple as possible. But still be thorough in the writing process so that the readers of your work would definitely find it easy to understand. But still, all the details have to be made clear so that they would not be left wondering. These are things that you cannot get without trainings and samples.It is quite obvious that you need to take up the California Bar Exam if you want to become a practicing lawyer. In this regard, it is very important to practice these trainings if you are really serious about doing well on the test. It will help you a lot especially when you need to make your best effort during the essay writing session. So, if you really want to become a lawyer or even more experienced, you must be sure of doing well on your test.The first thing that you need to remember is that you need to make the essay as interesting as possible. Keep the topic simple. In other words, focus on telling a specific story. You should always make sure that your writing is as detailed as possible because it will actually become the basis of the study material that will be given to you.A story without details will just lead to a bland and boring reading. However, a writer that makes the content of the essay as interesting as possible will definitely leave an impression in the minds of the judges who are evaluating your performance. Some say that great writers can go to the other extreme and be extremely vague, leaving the judges with more questions than answers. When you do this, you would truly benefit from this way of writing.In fact, a good writer needs to be able to write about something related to the test such a s the legalities, the standards, the stories of the examples. These are things that will make the topics of the essay easy to understand and are also examples of those that can be used for reference. You can actually do a good job at it even if you are not a writer.You will also need to stay away from general topics. For example, you should avoid writing about politics, religion, social concerns, and many others. You can do so because these topics do not really contribute to the discussion that will be had by the judges in the session.The best way to begin writing an essay is by using samples and trainings. These are the best things to help you to write as good as you can.

Stephen Blackpool Nice Guys Finished First - 2053 Words

Malcolm Hamilton Professor English 203 10, July 2014 Stephen Blackpool: Nice Guys Finish First Charles Dickens’ â€Å"Hard Times† is a revolving plot line based on characteristics of many beliefs and values. Stephen Blackpool, a Hand in Bounderby’s factory, is a man of great honesty, compassion, and integrity. The backlash on Blackpool starts whenever he refuses to join the workers’ union because he believes that striking is not the best way to improve relations between factory owners and employees. He also wants to earn an honest living. As a result, he is cast out of the workers’ group, but then is approached by Bounderby to spy on his fellow co-workers. After refusing his proposal, he was laid off with other unfortunate circumstances to follow. Although many people see the world as black and white, Blackpool views it in a grey scale where his beliefs, morals, and values should put the â€Å"nice guy† first. While Blackpool has a simple, clear view that nice guys should finish first, Dickens on demonstrates time and time again, for most of his characters that English capitalist society works counter to those values. In â€Å"Hard Times†, Dickens uses heroes, villains, and bystanders who represent people of his time. Dickens captures the social group system of nineteenth-century England by drawing from the travelers, represented by the circus people, the struggling labor class, the up and coming middle class, and the fading upper class. Stephen Blackpool, a hard-working power-loom

The Impact Of Media On Society And Culture - 1629 Words

Human beings are social creatures and they learn to socialize with others so they can feel a part of society. Through socialization people try and conform to the standards that come with being functioning members of society and fitting to the status quo. Besides interacting with others, we learn about the culture we live in. Culture teaches people the norms, the values, and what to believe in. The last influence that associates both society and culture is the media. Media has made a huge impact in the way people receive information, the kinds of programs they are exposed to, and the way we communicate with others. All of these influences are interpreted in both films â€Å"Miss Representation† and â€Å"The Mask You Live In.† Both films tackle and discuss the root of the problem as well as how it plagues our youth and the kind of future we will have. The film â€Å"Miss Representation† argues that the mass media industry impacts the way men, as well as women on how they are supposed to be represented in society. For example, many Americans spend numerous hours watching television. As commercials pop up, advertisers send subliminal messages so they can try to sell their products and gain the viewer’s attention. For men, advertisers target ages 18 to 34 because it’s harder to get them to watch television, so they encourage the networkers to come up with programming for men so they can sell their products to them. On the other hand, women like to watch television, so advertisersShow MoreRelatedThe Impact Of Technology On Media, Culture, And Society1193 Words   |  5 Pageseven imagine living without it. Throughout this essay, I will explain the effective impact of technology on media, culture, and society and will compare and contrast them. The first topic in this paper is media. What is media? â€Å"Media is the main means of mass communication (especially television, radio, newspapers, and the internet) regarded collectively.† (Oxford Dictionaries) With the growth of technology, media is also growing along with it. Every day you see more and more people on their cellRead MoreEssay about Impact of Mass Media on Individuals, Society, and Culture1178 Words   |  5 PagesImpact of Mass Media on Individuals, Society, and Culture Mass media, over the years, has had a profound effect on American society, on its culture, and on the individuals exposed to the media. Mass media is a form of socialization, having a long-term effect on each member of American society. While mass media targets the individual in short-term intervals, the overall influence on them has been established as the consumer moves from one impressionable age category to another. The long or short-Read MoreInfluence Of Mass Media885 Words   |  4 Pages Mass Media: Development and Literacy Alicia Nunez HUM/186 Media Influences on American Culture 8/21/2017 Allyson Wells Mass Media: Development and Literacy In the last century mass media has went from paper to digital, these major developments have influenced American culture in many ways. Newspapers have been around from the beginning they provide readers with information of practical value such as; television schedules, weather maps, and listings of stock prices. In additionRead MoreAdvertisement And Culture Of The Media1658 Words   |  7 Pages______________________________________________________________________________ 1. Introduction In the era of information society, media is playing a very crucial part in everyday lives. It influences both how we see ourselves and society in all perspectives. 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On the contrary, popularRead MoreInformation Medias Impact On The Effects Of News Media901 Words   |  4 PagesEffects of News Media Christopher Kramer HUM/186 August 7, 2017 Allyson Wells Effects of News Media The development of mass media had drastically changed over the last century and will continue to change. These advancements offer society a variety of avenues to access information instantaneously, which has an impact on American culture. Information Media and Social Responsibility Most major information media outlets do provide a social responsibility to provide fact-based information to theRead MoreThe Relationship Between Consumers And Businesses1113 Words   |  5 Pageswestern societies has changed due to the diffusion of technology. In addition, the tendency of Western societies to have consumer-based economies increases the impact that technological advances have on the way that business function and interact with their consumers. 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Having access to information twenty-four hours a day does not necessarily have a positive impact on society and self image. Media content despite its public charge does not exactly mirror real self image. Mass communication with television ads and movies offer an unrealistic view of the everyday person in various aspects of life. Media can have a positive or negative influence on cultu re and the way people view their lives

The Immigration Of Japanese Immigrants - 1259 Words

Question 1: The action taken by the U.S. government has shaped the migration of the Japanese. Between the late 1800s and early 1900s and agreement was passed, where thousands of Japanese immigrants came to the United States. To employers, this was ideal; as we know employers benefitted from labor immigration, therefore they supported the immigration of Japanese citizens. However, white workers opposed their immigration in fear of lack of jobs. This trend can also be seen with the Mexican immigrants that migrate into the United States. Because of the fear of Japanese immigrants overpopulating and seizing white Americans of their job opportunities, there was a prohibition of immigration in the 1900s, which stopped the flooding of Japanese†¦show more content†¦Before, Japanese immigrants could have been driven out of their home country because of their economy and pulled by the potential job opportunities that the United States offered. In this case, Japanese immigrants were dr awn by the opportunities in the United States but later were no longer needed because of the growing economy in their country. Question 2: Around the 1940s, all Japanese American families were forced into concentration camps due to fear of Japanese invasion. Due to Japanese military victories and the attack on Pearl Harbor, the federal government viewed Japanese Americans as a threat to their security and took action into allocating them in concentration camps. However, this imprisonment did not happen over night, instead, the government issued their incarceration discreetly and with subtle steps. First, many aliens, including Italians, Germans and Japanese were moved from certain areas and were restricted from air travel. Following this, these groups were excluded from many Western states like California, Arizona, etc. The fact that Japanese Americans were not the only aliens being relocated and restricted could have led to a false sense of security between these groups. However, those of Japanese ancestry were finally detained, while Germans and Italians were not. In the end, Japanese Americans were all tr ansported in large numbers to concentration camps that resided in the west.

Remember the Titans free essay sample

Have you ever watched a movie where there was not a conflict at some point that needed to be solved? The answer should be no because within every movie there is always some kind of conflict that must be solved. In â€Å"Remember the Titans† there are at least a series of ten or more conflicts, whether they are physical, mental, interpersonal, or even just random violence. These conflicts affect the movie itself and because of that cannot be just left open but must be resolved at some point or in some way; along with that they also are either solved in a good way or a very bad way. â€Å"Remember the Titans† is the story about a school in North Carolina, where up until 1971, was all white and was segregated against the blacks. This of course causes most of the conflicts because of the white not liking the black and vice versa. Coach Boone had no troubles in coaching the two race team, whereas Yoast found that coaching a two race team was a weakness that he could not help but ignore. Each coach was designated an area of responsibility to provide to the team. Coach Boone was assigned to train the offence team, with that Boone not only improved the teams defence skills but increased team spirit, and decreased inequality and discrimination against race. Whereas Coach Yoast was in charge of the defence team and was quite ignorant and unsupportive of Boone’s idea of bringing the two races together, he just wanted the players to play good game. There was a varying range of the amount of similarities and differences when analysing the skills and qualities each coach possessed. The two coaches shared an equal amount of knowledge and skill in football, they were both fully equipped and experienced when analysing and playing football. Secondly, both coaches have a caring and nurturing nature toward the players. For instance, when Coach Boone asked Louie if he was attending college after school, Louie replied no, and in an unconfident tone proclaimed he wasn’t as knowledgeable as Rev. Coach Boone then told him in a supportive manner that he would tutor him at the end of the term to get him somewhere in life, showing his ability not only to coach, but to be a reliability in Louie’s life. Lastly, the different styles and techniques of coaching in comparison to the two coaches. Coach Boone articulated a distinct difference in the way he coached, compared to Coach Yoast. Coach Boone used the method of ‘tough love’ on his players, he was disciplined and ultimate respect to him was required to be in the team, or there would be serious consequences. For instance when a player shouted during a training session ‘Coach we need water’, Coach Boone replied ‘A water break? Water is for cowards. Water makes you weak. Water is for washing blood off that uniform and you dont get no blood on my uniform, boy you must be outside your mind. We are going to do up-downs, until Blue is no longer tired, and thirsty. ’ Showing that he didn’t look twice on discipline in a military form. Another form of tough love was the structure of what Coach Boone defined as ‘training’. When he awoke all players at 3:00 in the morning, making them run 6 miles through a forest, stating ‘If you even think about stopping or walking, you may as well take the hike back home, because that’s not the way true footballers train! ’ Coach Yoast understood the players and felt quite sorry for them, he knew they disliked Coach Boone for his strict technique of coaching. Coach Yoast was the type of person that liked to impress everyone and didn’t like to be disliked. He wanted to make everyone happy, so he took the coaching the easy way, and was not a disciplinary as Coach Boone was. It is evident throughout the movie, that there are distinct comparisons between Coach Boone and Coach Yoast, they both share similarities and differences in their area of work, roles and responsibilities, qualities and the different styles of coaching. Although the two are dedicated and caring coaches, that possess the qualities of a good coach.

Melting Pot free essay sample

The melting pot has been used metaphorically to describe the dynamics of American social life. In addition to its descriptive uses, it has also been used to describe what should or should not take place in American social life. How did the term originate? How was it used originally? How is it used in contemporary society? What are some problems with the idea of the melting pot? How is public education connected to the idea of the melting pot? How does the melting pot function in American cultural and political ideology? These are some of the questions considered in the following discussion. The Statue of Liberty is by now a universally recognized symbol of American political mythology. She stands at the entrance of New York harbor, wearing a spiked crown representing the light of liberty shining on the seven seas and the seven continents. The statue was a gift to the United States from the people of France in 1884. We will write a custom essay sample on Melting Pot or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page It is made of riveted copper sheets, only 3/32 of an inch thick, ingeniously attached to a framework designed by Louis Eiffel. Its construction is such that it will not be stressed by high winds or temperature changes (The world Book Encyclopedia, pp. 874-875). The symbolism of the statue is reinforced by Emma Lazarus’poem â€Å"The New Colossus†, which is inscribed on a plaque at the base of the statue. Not like the brazen giant of Greek fame, With conquering limbs astride from land to land; Here at our sea-washed, sunset gates shall stand A mighty woman with a torch, whose flame Is the imprisoned lightning, and her name Mother of exiles. From her beacon hand Glows world-wide welcome; her mild eyes command The air-bridged harbor that twin cities frame. â€Å"Keep, ancient lands, your storied pomp! † cries she With silent lips. â€Å"Give me your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, The wretched refuse of your teeming shore. Send these, the tempest-tost to me. I lift my lamp beside the golden door. † (Emma Lazarus, 1883) The Statue of liberty, dedicated in 1886, became a visual symbol of American ideology. Between 1880 and 1930, 27 million people migrated to the United States (www. pbs. org/fmc/timeline/eimmigration. htm). Most of them entered by way of Ellis Island in New York harbor. Most of them would have ended their long six weeks’ journey with by seeing Miss Liberty come into view. These immigrants were about to enter the â€Å"golden door. † What lay behind it? What opportunities were imagined? What kind of life was imagined? How were these turn- of- the- century souls to become part of America? A Brief History of the Common School One powerful social institution that played an important part in the integrative process of immigrants, beginning in about the middle of the 19th century was the common school. Horace Mann, the first state school superintendent in Massachusetts and a strong advocate for a number of social reforms, including a system of public education, articulated the ideology of a common school in his Twelfth Annual Report of the Board of Education in 1849 (Boston: Dutton and Wentworth, 1849). He says: It (a free school system) knows no distinction of rich and poor, of bond and free, or between those, who, in the imperfect light of this world, are seeking, through different avenues, to reach the gate of heaven. Without money and without price, it throws open its doors, and spreads its table of bounty, for all the children of the State. Like the sun, it shines, not only upon the good, but upon the evil, that they may become good; and like the rain, its blessings descend, not only upon the just, but upon the unjust, that their injustice may depart from them and be known no more. This flowery description of the possibilities inherent in a system of free schools was to become part of American political ideology. Public schooling was seen as having the power to recreate and reform European immigrants into respectable, tractable, productive American citizens. Through a system of common schools, a variety of creeds and cultures could be amalgamated for the social stability and economic good of the country. By the late 1800s the public school movement in America was robust in the Northeast but just gaining momentum in the South. Its progress had been halting, proceeding at different rates under the influence of varying geographic, cultural, and economic circumstances. The common school, as it was first called, was to be tax supported. It was to have a common curriculum, regardless of the social station of its clientele, it was to be open to all, and it was to foster a common set of civic virtues. The public school movement in the Northeast began to gain ground in the early years of the 19th century. It was powerfully influenced and directed by the rise of industrialism, by charismatic reformers such as Horace Mann, by new modes of transportation, and by the contributions of American inventors. The historian S. Alexander Rippa says â€Å" In the history of American education, one of the most significant outcomes of the Industrial Revolution was the gradual emergence of a new, public school- minded working class in the northern cities. Indeed, the rapid growth of manufacturing depended on a readily available source of labor for the new factories† (Rippa, 1984. . 100). The labor force in the northern factories and mills was augmented by European immigrants: Between 1815 and 1845 almost 3 million emigrants had left their home shores for America (p. 101). Significant numbers of immigrants in mid-century America profoundly affected the public school movement. They formed a nucleus for organized labor, whose agenda included an interest in education; and their very presence in such large numbers fueled fears for the fragility of a young nation (p. 102). The common school was seen as an avenue for the assimilation of immigrants into American society. Formal schooling was not systematic in America in the mid-1800s, despite the regional efforts of strong advocates for public education. There were wide regional and cultural differences in attitudes toward the idea of tax-supported, systematic formal schooling based upon a common curriculum. Various religious groups had established schools for the perpetuation of their theology and culture, especially in the mid-Atlantic and Northern states. These groups were fearful of relinquishing responsibility to political authority. In the Southern states, slavery and a strong caste system were impediments to the development of public schools (p. 97). The influx of huge numbers of immigrants exacerbated religious and cultural tensions and engendered conflicts with American workers who were fearful for their jobs. This volatile situation created even more support for systematic public education as a socializing agent. Public education became part of a wider humanitarian movement addressing all kinds of social ills created by urbanization, industrialization, and immigration (p. 105). A diverse group of largely middle class reformers called for action to abolish slavery, to improve the conditions of the poor, to increase the legal rights of women, and to improve the educational opportunities for all classes of people. The social changes of the latter half of the 19th century buttressed a general belief in education as a pragmatic social institution. The South presented a special case, however, especially because of the devastating effects of the Civil War and Reconstruction as well as its long history of slavery. In the South, the integration of masses of newly freed slaves was an enormous task, especially in a decimated economy and in a social milieu that was still strongly class conscious. African Americans were largely illiterate because of a history of legal restrictions against educating them. There was also a â€Å"rising tide of illiteracy among the southern white people† (p147). The Peabody Education Fund, a philanthropic endeavor established by the wealthy financier George Peabody for the purpose of improving southern education, found that from 1862 to 1872 the white population had increased by 13%, but the illiteracy rate had increased by 50 % (p. 147). In the twelve years following the Civil War, the period known as Reconstruction, local government in the South was directed by the Federal government. This was a bitter pill for many white Southerners to swallow. Public education was identified in their minds with the agenda of Northern interlopers. It was further stigmatized in their minds by its association with charity schools. Therefore, the ideological potency of public education as a great equalizer was embraced primarily by a core of black leaders, progressive white leaders such as Walter Hines Page (p. 154), and some northern philanthropists. It would be decades before public education was firmly established in the South. â€Å"While a devastated South fought and struggled to survive, the North, ironically, passed through the tragic years of war and reconstruction more prosperous than ever,† says Alexander Rippa (p. 156). In the 1880s another wave of immigration began, settling primarily in northern urban centers; and these â€Å"new† immigrants, mostly from Eastern Europe, brought with them cultural patterns which differed greatly from native-born Americans and the northern and western European immigrants who preceded them. Between 1890 and 1920, 18 million new citizens debarked in America (Booth, Washington Post). Existing social problems became even more pressing. There was a perception among native-born Americans that the social problems of the cities stemmed from the changing character of the new immigrants (p. 71). There was a new urgency to Americanize these latest groups. This urgency played its part in the general willingness in the northern states to establish systematic public education. The Melting Pot What did it mean to â€Å"Americanize† a non native-born population? It meant much more than teaching English to new citizens. It also meant establishing a loyalty to the United States, instilling a devotion to democracy, and breaking up ethnic and cultural loyalties (p. 171). The public school became directly involved in this social task in the late 1800s. In 1908 a play opened in Washington, D.C. entitled â€Å"The Melting Pot† (Booth, Washington Post). The playwright was Israel Zangwill, a Jewish immigrant from England, and the message of the play was that all immigrants could be transformed into a new alloy in the crucible of â€Å"democracy, freedom, and civic responsibility† (ibid. ). Zangwill believed old cultural hatreds had no place in a new country; he claimed that God â€Å"was using America as a ‘crucible’ to melt the ‘fifty’ barbarian tribes of Europe into a metal from which he can cast Americans† (www. pbs. org). This was not a gentle metaphor. The product of the melting pot would be completely transformed; the original metals would have lost their original identities under the influence of the extreme heat. Zangwill’s chief concern was that the old cultural and religious hatreds of the emigres would be perpetuated in America, but he believed that part of the melting pot effect would be that people would marry across ethnic and religious barriers. Other conceptions of the melting pot focused on acculturation and economic assimilation through deliberate means such as public education and projects such as Jane Addams’ Hull House. The metaphor of a melting pot had idealistic overtones as well as fear of social chaos built in. There was also an element of xenophobia and fear that immigrants would maintain their loyalties to foreign powers. But there was also a genuine desire to help people improve their lives and become economically and culturally successful in their new country. Zangwill himself believed that if immigrants would undergo the melting pot, they would be â€Å"just as American as anyone else† (ibid. ). The melting pot was a quite complicated idea, with regional differences as well. A chief goal of American classrooms, especially in northern cities, was to melt down the distinctive cultural metals into the new American alloy. Compulsory attendance assured that all children would be exposed to this process. By the end of World War I, most states, regardless of geographical differences, had enacted compulsory school laws, although the upper age limits differed (Rippa, p. 172). In 1911 in the major urban centers, over half of the public school population consisted of the children of immigrant parents (p. 173). The melting pot was not a universally accepted social vision of the way America ought to be. An early critic of homogeneity and uniformity was the essayist Randolph Bourne. He envisioned a pluralistic society in which difference would be valued (Fischer, et. al. , 1997, p. 15). In a 1916 essay, Bourne asks â€Å"whether perhaps the time has not come to assert a higher ideal than the ‘melting pot’. . . . America is a unique sociological fabric, and it bespeaks poverty of imagination not to be thrilled at the incalculable potentialities of so novel a union of men† (ibid. pp. 16, 17). Bourne believed that a cosmopolitan society would be creative and would most accurately embody democratic ideals. Some of the harshest rhetoric in this article, first published in the Atlantic Monthly, is reserved for the role of the public school in perpetuating a shallow popular culture: â€Å"This ( a public school education) does not mean that they (immigrants) have actually been changed into New Englanders or Middle Westerners. It does not mean that they have really been Americanized. It means that, letting slip from them whatever native culture they had, they have substituted for it only the most rudimentary America the American culture of the cheap newspaper, the ‘movies,’ the popular song, the ubiquitous automobile. The unthinking who survey this class call them assimilated, Americanized. The great American public school has done its work† (ibid. , p. 16). Although the term â€Å"melting pot† was, and is, generally associated with assimilating European immigrants, especially eastern Europeans in the early years of the 20th century, the issue of assimilation extended beyond this group. In the South, the problem of assimilation included bringing African Americans and poverty stricken white children into the economic mainstream. The south, as a region, had to redefine itself as part of a nation and not as a separate culture. In the southwestern states, assimilation was focused on Native Americans and Mexicans who lived in the territories ceded to the United States by Mexico in 1848. In the western states and territories, the immigrant population of concern was Chinese. What kind of education was provided for the immigrant population? Jacob Riis was a humanitarian reformer, a journalist and photographer who chronicled the lives of New York’s immigrant poor. A representative description comes from Riis’s The Children of the Poor (Best Sidwell, 1967). . . . and the discovery has been made by their teachers that as the crowds pressed harder their school-rooms have marvelously expanded, until they embrace within their walls an unsuspected multitude, even many a slum tenement itself, cellar, â€Å"stoop,† attic, and all. Every lesson of cleanliness, of order, and of English taught at the school is reflected into some wretched home, and rehearsed there as far as the limited opportunities will allow. No demonstration with soap and water upon a dirty little face but widens the sphere of these chief promoters of education in the slums. . . . Naturally the teaching of these children must begin by going backward. The process may be observed in the industrial schools, of which there are twenty-one scattered through the poor tenement districts, with a total enrolment of something over five thousand pupils. . . .Whatever its stamp of nationality, the curriculum is much the same. The start, as often as is necessary, is made with an object lesson soap and water being the elements and the child the object. The alphabet comes second on the list. Later on follow lessons in sewing, cooking, carpentry for the boys, and like practical â€Å"branches† of which the home affords the child no demonstration. . . . Very lately a unique exercise has been added to the course in the schools, that lays hold of the very marrow of the problem with which they deal. It is called â€Å"saluting the flag,† and originated with Colonel George T. Balch, of the Board of Education, who conceived the idea of instilling patriotism into the little future citizens of the Republic in doses to suit their childish minds. To talk about the Union, of which most of them had but the vaguest notion, or of the duty of the citizen, of which they had no notion at all, was nonsense. In the flag it was all found embodied in a central idea which they could grasp. In the morning the star-spangled banner was brought into the school, and the children were taught to salute it with patriotic words. Then the best scholar of the day before was called out of the ranks, and it was given to him or her to keep for the day. The thing took at once and was a tremendous success. Kindergarten also became a popular mode of education for assimilation as it was thought to instill order in the young child (ibid. ). Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. DuBois Two of the early twentieth century’s most powerful voices in black America disagreed with each other on matters of assimilation. Their argument echoes in contemporary America. Booker T. Washington was born into slavery in Virginia, and was liberated at the age of nine at the end of the Civil War. His rise from humble circumstances into prominence as a nationally recognized educator and spokesperson for African- Americans was chronicled in his autobiography, Up From Slavery (1901). Washington worked in coal mines and salt furnaces before attending Hampton Institute, an industrial school for African-Americans. He later established and administered Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, emulating the model of vocational education he himself received (World Book, vol. 21, pp88-89). Washington stressed vocational education and the social skills that would allow African-Americans to move relatively seamlessly into the economy. It was an incremental approach and â€Å"the schoolhouse† (Best Sidwell, p. 281) was essential, followed by the very best of vocational education. Washington, writing in 1904 in Working With the Hands (Best Sidwell, p. 281) says, â€Å"We must be sure that we shall make our greatest progress by keeping our feet on the earth, and by remembering that an inch of progress is worth a yard of complaint. . . .All the Negro race asks is that the door which rewards industry, thrift, intelligence, and character be left as wide open for him as for the foreigner who constantly comes to our country. More than this, he has no right to request. Less than this, a Republic has no right to vouchsafe† (ibid. , p. 283). Washington’s vision of the assimilation of African-Americans into the mainstream at the turn of the century had much in common with the ideology of the melting pot. At Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, Washington’s system of industrial education was aimed toward creating economically indispensable workers who would have the skills, the work ethic, and the demeanor of the larger society. W. E. B. Du Bois was born in Massachusetts three years after the end of the Civil War. His great grandfather was a white plantation owner in Haiti, and his mother was a free African-American. Du Bois’ childhood and education were much different from Booker T. Washington’s. He attended racially mixed schools, and was encouraged by his high school principal to enroll in the college preparatory curriculum. White benefactors funded his college education at Fisk University. Du Bois eventually earned a Ph. D. rom Harvard University, gaining preeminence as a pioneer in sociological survey methods. He was a political activist, passionately committed to the belief that African-Americans deserved the educational opportunity denied them by a segregated society, including and most especially, the opportunity for university and professional education (Gutek, 1997, pp. 371-392). Education played an enormous role in the personal lives and the visions of both Washington and Du Bois, but t heir educational emphases and methods of assimilation were antagonistic to one another. Du Bois wanted to push the society: Washington believed African-Americans, as a group, had to deal with the harsh realities of a segregated society by first demonstrating that they were indispensable to the economic health of the society. This implied vocational education rather than scholarship and political activism. The interpretation of equal educational opportunity would be re-visited in a serious way in the 1940s, 50s, and 60s. The metaphor of the melting pot seems an ironic one for a population which had been deliberately excluded from mainstream culture for hundreds of years on the basis of a salient difference skin color. Zangwill’s notion of ethnic blending through intermarriage did not sit well with southern white society, and was referred to as miscegenation. And yet, Booker T. Washington’s view of assimilation is congruent with the idea of merging, melting, and blending into the economic whole. The ideas of W. E. B. Du Bois, on the other hand, require another metaphor. Du Bois challenges the structure of the society itself. Beyond the Melting Pot In 1963, two sociologists took an in-depth look at the role of ethnicity in the life of New York City. In the preface to their book Beyond the Melting Pot (1963), Nathan Glazer and Daniel Patrick Moynihan say, â€Å"The notion that the intense and unprecedented mixture of ethnic and religious groups in American life was soon to blend into a homogeneous end product has outlived its usefulness, and also its credibility. . . . The point about the melting pot, as we see later, is that it did not happen. At least not in New York and, mutatis mutandis, in those parts of America which resemble New York† (p. xcvii). Glazer and Moynihan focus on the third and fourth generations of â€Å"newcomers† (ibid. as represented by five identifiable groups in the city of New York: African-Americans, Puerto Ricans, Jews, Italians, and Irish. The title of their book implies both the time and place of their scholarly focus as well as the need for a new metaphor to describe what they see. One of the major conclusions of Beyond the Melting Pot is that â€Å"The ethnic group in America became not a survival from the age of mass immigration but a new social form† (p. 16). Thus, the authors take the melting pot out of the realm of ideology, and see it in its descriptive elements. Essentially the melting pot does not exist except in the imagination, they believe. Glazer and Moynihan are not much interested in the role of education as a social institution. Rather, they are interested in the way social groups form and identify themselves and work toward common interests. They acknowledge that immigrants to America did lose their language and alter their culture, and that several generations ago it did seem reasonable to project that eventually ethnicity would give way to a new national identity. But they note that ethnic groups re-create themselves as something new, which mark them off. And these differences are operative in social policy (ibid. , 12-14). In a sense, ethnicity is as much an interest group as it is a cultural group, so there is a reason to maintain the differences rather than blend them. Getting ahead in the society would depend upon maintaining this interest group and the political power it wields rather than diminishing the difference. In this case, the metaphor of the melting pot would be counter-productive to the actual interests of the â€Å"ethnic† group. In Glazer and Moynihan’s work, we see the immigrant in a new light. The immigrant is not one to whom something must be done or someone who must somehow be brought into the fold or helped in some way. Now the immigrant is spoken of as a political force. Civil Rights and Equal Opportunity The 1960s and 1970s were decades in which the language of assimilation evolved into the language of civil rights and equal opportunity, largely as the result of a group of highly educated African-American legal scholars and charismatic leaders such as Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. . The melting pot metaphor was left behind, and a language of rights was put in its place. Again, public education became a focus, and for several reasons. The separate but equal system of education in the southern states was a sitting duck for legal challenge. The system was patently unequal, and it took only the doggedness of lawyers such as Charles Hamilton Houston and the legal expertise of the NAACP to mount a challenge to this system. The end result was the Brown vs. The Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas decision, which struck down the separate but equal legal precedent. Public education became the focal point for discourse about how to bring African-Americans into the economic mainstream and how to foster their access to all the opportunities of a democratic society. This was not a melting pot issue because African-Americans themselves were challenging the moral authority of the political system. They were demanding the natural rights that the United States Constitution bestowed on its citizens. They were articulating a theme which had not been fully acknowledged in public discourse about assimilation that certain groups had been deliberately denied the American dream of social mobility and social equality. Public education was seen as an important avenue for social mobility and economic parity. It was, and is, a perceived means to achieve the goals of creating and maintaining a common set of civic virtues and economic and social stability. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 forbids discrimination in any federally funded program, including, of course, public education. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act passed by the United States Congress in the following year made significant Federal dollars available, thereby enticing school systems to conform to the 1954 Brown vs. Board mandate. The courts and the Congress were challenged in their own terms to respond to the demands of a minority interest group to have the promise of America made good. The legal system and the United States legislature were again used as instrument to address the neglect of other interest groups. Schools were to be venues for promoting equality, in response to legislative and legal mandates, but they were not serving as melting pots. In 1974, the United States Supreme Court ruled that school systems denied students their equal opportunity to receive the benefit of a public education if they did not provide language instruction for children whose primary language was other than English (Rippa, p. 408). Public Law 94-142, signed by then President Gerald Ford in 1975, established the right to a free, public, appropriate, least restrictive education for students with physical and intellectual disabilities (pp. 397-398). This original law has undergone a number of amendments that essentially expanded and refined the original law. It is now best known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act – IDEA. In 1972, Title IX of the education amendments of the 1964 Civil Rights Act made it illegal for anyone to be denied on the basis of sex the benefits of any activity or program receiving Federal funds (p. 277). The melting pot idea has been turned on its head through the efforts of special interest groups who have no desire to be thoroughly assimilated into the dominant culture, but who wish to have equal opportunity for economic and political parity in America. Contemporary Melting Pot Issues In the 21st century, the tension between common national values and pluralism, or multiculturalism, is prominent in national discourse. Some have called this the culture wars, but it is more profound than that: it is a philosophical and psychological tension inherent in democracy. The debate shows up in school matters, for example, when curriculum and instructional decisions have to be made about teaching English as a second language. Should non-native speakers have instruction in their own language as well as learning English? Will they be held back if they are placed in classes designed for non-native speakers of English? Should they be taught to be competent in the grammar and syntax of their native languages as well as English? The larger question might be, â€Å"Can one hold dual citizenship, so to speak, in America and in one’s culture of origin†? The notion of cultural literacy, as articulated by E. D. Hirsch (1987), proposes that there is a common core of cultural knowledge which all Americans should possess if they are to be fully educated, capable citizens. Cultural literacy†, of course begs the question â€Å"Whose culture? † An answer satisfactory to all parties in the debate has not been given. What knowledge should be common to all citizens? What should public schools require as cultural literacy? Again, where is the balance to be struck between maintaining cultural identity and national identity that transcends cultural differences? The push for values education as a part of the formal public school curriculum also embodies an argument concerning which values should be taught as well as who has the authority to make such decisions. A more extreme version of this issue centers around whether to allow faith-based groups to have formal connection with public schools to teach religious values. Tracking, special education, magnet schools, single gender education, and giftedness programs all designed to meet special needs and foster economic stability are not uniformly accepted as good. Do they create strong class barriers of a different kind, or do they ameliorate barriers that prevent particular classes of people from reaching their growth potential? Summary Some careful observers of American culture in the 1700s predicted that in a society of pioneers and emigres, traditional ethnic, religious, and cultural differences would be erased as people adapted to a new society, intermarried, and focused their attention on prospering in a new social order. The idea was that assimilation would be a natural, gradual, somewhat orderly process. J. Hector St. John Crevecoeur, a French essayist who eventually settled in New York State, writes in 1782: What, then, is the new American, this new man? He is neither a European, nor the descendant of a European; hence that strange mixture of blood, which you will find in no other country. I could point out to you a family whose grandfather was an Englishman, whose wife was Dutch, whose son married a French woman, and whose present four sons have now four wives of different nations. He is an American, who, leaving behind him all his ancient prejudices and manners, receives new ones from the new modes of life he has embraced, the new government he obeys, and the new rank he holds. He becomes an American by being received in the broad lap of our great Alma Mater. Here individuals of all nations are melted into a new race of men, whose labors and posterity will one day cause great changes in the world (Crevecoeur, pp. 41-45) In the early 1800s, and again in the years surrounding the century’s turn, the notion of natural, gradual assimilation was challenged by the sheer numbers of new immigrants and by the fact that the later waves of immigration consisted of eastern Europeans, who were much different in culture from the already established groups. Egregious urban social problems and escalating tensions between the new immigrants and established groups created a new urgency for the solution of these problems, which were perceived as threatening the social order. Public schooling assumed a prominent role in assimilation in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Its job was to enculturate the masses of new immigrants, to instill in them a sense of loyalty to the United States, and to make them economically viable. The school as a social institution has been mobilized to effect massive social changes since the mid 1800s. Whether these changes have always been successful is arguable. Schools have been enlisted to reinforce the new Republic, improve the moral character of the society, decrease social class differences, assimilate immigrant groups, teach citizenship skills, provide skills for economic success, meet the needs of individuals for personal growth, improve the nation’s competitive advantage in the world market, provide social mobility, model democratic virtues for the young, and reduce racial and ethnic prejudice. American political and cultural ideology has contained a set of tensions from its earliest articulation. E pluribus unum and diversity are twin American values. The melting pot, as a metaphor and an ideal has its critics. Homogeneity of culture and values is in tension with cosmopolitan vitality; pride in being an American contends with the possible loss of one’s particular cultural identity; an emphasis on economic prosperity as a mundane value competes with more abstract values. And the nature of the process of assimilation has a variety of contentious advocates: there are those who recommend a gradual process through economic productivity, and then there are those who demand immediate recognition and acceptance into the mainstream. The interest groups evolve, but the arguments remain the same. In the 1960s and 1970s there was a renewed interest in assimilation that focused less on ethnicity and cultural differences in defining the discourse of assimilation around the language of equal opportunity and civil rights. Women, African-Americans, Native Americans, and Latinos became vocal as interest groups, and their issues were primarily centered on economic advancement and other social opportunities. Politics became at least as important as education as a means to these ends, although education was still seen as a key to the golden door of opportunity. In contemporary America, the discourse of assimilation includes distinctively educational matters. The structure of schooling, assessment of learning, curriculum content and materials, instructional strategies, special needs of students, school fundingall contain the tensions of the melting pot. The discourse around these issues and others seems to have made a metaphorical shift from â€Å"the melting pot† to the militant â€Å"culture wars† or â€Å"class wars† or â€Å"gender wars† The metaphor of war was being proposed as early as the 1930s and 1940s. Louis Adamic, a widely read and respected novelist and journalist, describes â€Å"a psycho- logical Civil War† in his work Two Way Passage (1941, p. 85). His book explores the growing tensions in American society in the pre-World War II years. He says: Economic and industrial problems, labor, education, trends in writing, the theater, architecture, and other arts were attracting a lot of attention (in the 1930s). They interested me too. But little heed was paid in print and on the platform to the United States as a conglomerate of peoples the result of a great migration. Little attention was directed to the intricacies and maladjustments which grew up in its train. There was little realization that in the process cultures were being shattered. This last fact appeared to me most important. The old-stock American cultural patterns of a hundred years ago clashed with the Old World ways ( as revised by the slum and the factory ) of new-immigrant groups and partially destroyed them. It was a negative business. Many values, both old-American and new-immigrant, were not adjusted to the needs of contemporary America. Nor did they fuse or merge. They were simply ground out, pushed aside, scrapped, without giving rise to new values. They either went down through lack of character, through irresponsibility and vulgarity, or they were clung to desperately, in toto and thus perverted and devitalized. . . . Like the peoples of Europe, we in America have not yet completely synchronized the two-way impulse to homogeneity and diversity. We have experienced both but, as our sporadic psychological civil war with its several fronts demonstrates, we have not achieved a steady, continuous balance between them. When we examine our resemblances we find that one of them is our common against-ness; when we look at our differences, most of them charged with potentialities for good, we see that all too often they function defensively against other differences.Where can this take us? (1941, pp. 87-88). This seems an apt question to ask 60 plus years later. Glazer and Moynihan made direct reference to a metaphorical shift in the title of their 1963 work, Beyond the Melting Pot. They also questioned the reality of the melting pot. This seems to be the abiding tension in the idea of the melting pot finding a balance between pluralism and homogeneity in values in multiple public arenas education, politics, popular culture, social policy, and economics. If cultural metaphors belie true modes of thinking, it should be somewhat disturbing to note the metaphorical shift to â€Å"war†. Wars imply victors and the vanquished, a state of affairs America has not seen since 1865.

The Georgia Colony was one of the 13 original colo Essays

The Georgia Colony was one of the 13 original colo Essays The Georgia Colony was one of the 13 original colonies in America. The 13 original colonies were divided up into three regions including the New England Colonies, the Middle Colonies, and the Southern Colonies. The Georgia Colony was one of the Southern Colonies which also included the Maryland Colony, the Virginia Colony, the North Carolina Colony and the South Carolina Colony. The Georgia Colony was the last of the 13 original colonies to be established. It was founded in 1732 by several colonists including James Oglethorpe. The Georgia Colony was named after King George II of England, as specified by the king himself in the charter granting the colony . Some of the struggles colonists faced were shortages of food, adjusting to the new climate, and in the first summer many people died of yellow fever . Most people in colonial Georgia were small farmers. Each family was given a small farm, which descended to the male heir. The people were somewhat isolated from the rest of the colonies, and mail hardly reached Georgia, especially farther from the coast. There weren't roads to connect settlers, and the only town was the small village of Savannah. I n colonial Georgia, women worked hard cooking, cleaning, raising vegetables, spinning wool and yarn and raising children. They also knitted clothing, like stockings and sweaters, and they made their own soap and candles. Women were also tasked with milking cows, churning milk to make butter and gathering berries and nuts as additional food sources. Some fun facts about colonial Georgia are that Georgia's original name was Province of Georgia. Georgia was the last American colony founded , nearly 50 years after the other 12. Georgia's capital has moved four times since it was founded. Georgia went through many hardships. Colonist struggled with the summer heat, and did not have much land to work with. Women had it especially hard because they had to raise their children while doing many different tasks. This last American colony to be founded has managed to survive after all their hardships and isolation from the other colonies.

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MODERN ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT - Essay Example Moreover, I feel that the increase in the credit facilities coupled with decreasing interest broadened the market for the firm, as more people could not easily afford a car. As per Barney and Hesterly (2005), in addition to that, the working population has increased as more women have entered the working sector and many are working and studying simultaneously. This has increased the purchasing power of the customers and sales have increased because of it. However, I feel with the increasing working population, the demand has increased along with the competition (Gourlay, 2001, pp. 27-46). As per Ahrens (2010) this means that consumers have more choice and have become much more demanding. Moreover, in countries like India for instance the middle class expands every year by 30-40 million people, which in turn means more people now demand cars in these countries. Today, moreover, the consumers are being offered car loans on easy instalments, which make a positive impact on the sales of Toyota. Additionally, explain Berzon and Khan (2010), the prices of raw materials and petrol have increased which affects the price and thus the sales of Toyota products. These economic conditions play an important role in the increase of sales on Toyota. These conditions have of course affected the strategies of Toyota. With the economic crunch especially in the USA, the firm was proactive and aimed to increase its sales in developing China and India where the crunch was less prominent. The global strategy adopted by the firm worked positively. Additionally. When the economic conditions in the USA lowered the purchasing power of the consumers, the firm changed its strategy and started production of smaller and cheaper cars. Lastly, Jensen (2010) explains that with the increasing prices of the raw material, the firm resorted to the hybrid variety of cars, which reduced the prices increasing the sales. Thus I feel that Toyota altered its strategies very smartly as per the changing ec onomic conditions with the result that even with a global economic crunch, the firm had little effect on its sales (Kane, 2010). Berzon and Khan (2010) explain that the social aspects include the changing trends, the smarter consumer in terms of being more knowledgeable regarding product information. Kane (2010) adds that the customer can now use the internet to know about the number of Toyota recalls in any part of the world, the latest technology available, the new models, price comparisons, product features and much more. The consumer has become more knowledgeable and thus firms cannot fool them with smart and deceptive advertising. Also, Gourlay (2001, pp. 27-46) add that the consumers are becoming more demanding with globalisation, as there are many more products available in the global market. The consumer has now become more fashionable and seeks comfort. Thus Toyota needs to cater to both these social aspects. Ahrens (2010) adds that tradition, culture and the customers in t he respective markets have to be studied before the firm can design a car. Jensen (2010) explains that for instance, in India, the drivers are right hand drivers, thus the cars have to be designed differently for the market. In the US there are more left-hand drivers. Kane (2010) adds that colour preference, design and accessory preference varies from market to market and thus the firms have to cater differently to them. This means that Toyota has to change its traditional lean

Destination Management Report On Singapore

Destination Management Report On Singapore Travel and tourism attention has the heading upon all sides in many countries especially due to the capability to emanate over-abundance for the economy. The industry is counted as the single of the many critical apparatus of income as well as foreign exchange. Travel as well as Tourism commercial operation especially emphasizes to magnetize the foreigners. There have been countless examples of tourism destinations around the universe that have been adversely impacted upon by tourism development. Tourism formulation formed upon the philosophies of sustainability has emerged as the single of the many extensive as well as supposed approaches. However, the tolerable proceed to tourism formulation hinges upon dual pass caveats firstly an extended turn of mixed stakeholder appearance in the tourism formulation routine is compulsory as well as secondly, the need for the vital course towards tourism formulation (Simpson, 2001). While Ritchie and Crouch (2000) explain that more destinations have been taking advantage of vital perspectives towards tourism development, Simpson (2001: 4) finds that although the concepts of stakeholder appearance as well as vital course have been at large permitted as profitable contributors to tolerable development, there have been no prior attempts to sign the border to that such considerations play their role in genuine universal tourism formulation processes. The foremost impending of this investigate is quite straightforward, to coop down the tourism planning and policy of the tourist destination. The literature is mainly focused on branding, financial and product development policies of the selected destination. Destination can be basically described as a place in which tourism is comparatively dominant business and the main economic activity that contributes to the local and national governments. The concept of destination management as a matter of fact is therefore a complex one since a particular place regarded as a destination may be covering a wide area like a metropolis, a region, a whole state or sometimes an entire nation for example the Caribbean Island. Ritchi Crouch (2003) indicated that running and administering places frequented by tourists is a vital component of being in charge of the effects and damages brought about by tourism. For example in tourist destinations like sub- Saharan Africa where game watching is the prominent tourist attraction, administration of such places is of essence in order to retain the natural environment where game animals live and to discourage unsustainable human activities as much as possible. Destination management is composed of adjudication and allocation of available space, issuing trading licenses for tour operators and hotel owners, developing and implementing operational policies, safeguarding the parks or the museums, drafting government and local support programs and undertaking related relevant activities or interventions that will help in advancing progresses and day to day running of visitors destinations and associated events. Roland Buck (2008) Indicated that the presence of power and authority over these places as may be represented by the county councils or national governments, not for profit bodies, special interest groups, the experts and scholars on environment and the home business council form what is known to be destination management society. A group composed of tourist operators, logistic firms, lodge and bistros, sites, game parks, museums and others form a majority portion that makes a destination. Another issue that should be taken into account is the means through which the marketing would be done. Most destinations use the internet and television. The promotions about the forth coming world cup in South Africa may be a good case study. It must be noted that management of a single destination is different from anothers because the requirements, size and the location of the area it covers and the number of interested parties may differ. Marketing is a commerce term which refers to actions taken by a business in order to satisfy its customers on a continued basis and achieving the sales projections it set out. Marketing is a deliberate step of actions that are taken by businesses which sell its goods and services in a market where competitors are many. Customers would always want to choose the best commodities of those available in the market. To create leverage over the competitors and to attract as well maintain a desirable market share, firms must integrate marketing into their operations. Destination marketing can therefore be defined as a conscious effort by tourism management institutions to sell a certain tourist attraction place or activities to prospective tourists, to meet their sales projections and maintain a sizable percentage of market share compared to other destinations. Several factors are considered when marketing a destination. For example, the target tourists must be identified, their needs taken into account, the competitors must be known, determining the fees and prices paid and so on. Pike (2004) indicated that several interest groups as well as governments, who depend on a given destination, are necessary for them to come together for the purpose of marketing it. They could achieve this by agreeing on standardizing the services they offer, contributing money for joint advertisements and improving the tourism facilities in and around the destination. However there is a concern by observers that these several parties have divergent interest in the sense that they collude to market the destination they operate from while also competing amongst themselves. A point that should be taken into account is that businesses in a tourist destination are the major contributors to marketing efforts while the authorities are concerned about managing the destinations. Destination planning can be defined as premeditated efforts by tourism businesses and authorities to arrange and prepare a tourist attraction place or activities with the aim of realizing order and harmony in their operations. According to Clare Turgut (2006) without a plan, there would be evident disorganization with regard to service delivery. It evidently acknowledged all over the world that it is necessary to employ the use of better alternatives in setting up as well as improving the tourist attraction places. This takes two dimensions. One is of offering the tourists an excellent value for money in the services provided. The second dimension takes into account the effects of human activity on the environment. It also involves the development and improvement of communication and transport networks around and within the destination together with connecting this business to supplementary cost effective industries. Furthermore, there is an aspect of working with and integrating the neighbouring group of residents. This is because the destination might be their ancestral land and of economic value by virtue of them working and living there. Adequate planning also checks unrestrained or illegal tourism. Singapore as a tourist destination Singapore is an international tourist destination with excellent basic and general infrastructure, a great range of activities, events and entertainment. It is regarded as a destination of family oriented, safe, modern, shopping paradise, plenty of sun and good food. It also features one of the most efficient airports in the world and a national airline with strong reputation for reliability and service (Wan T.W.D. Hui T.K. 2003). Singapore has a great potential to attract tourist, as it is a stopover for many other countries and considered as a tourist hub. The country has been ranked 5th in global competitiveness in 2009 by world economic forum, which reveals its management and marketing efficiency. Even though the country doesnt have an exclusive ministry for tourism, the political will and support for tourism industry is great. Singapore experienced visitor arrivals of 10.1 million and tourism receipts of 15.2 billion in 2008 and the government is targeting triple tourism receipts by 2015. Singapore tourism board Singapore tourism board is the supreme destination management organisation (DMO) for tourism in Singapore which have four divisions namely tourism marketing, corporate services, tourism business and regional marketing, under ministry of industry and trade. Apart from tourism promotion, STB also performs the role of economic development for tourism industry. The mission of STB is to ensure the position of tourism as a key economic pillar of the country through well thought out strategy in collaboration with public and private sector stakeholders. STB also strives for exciting and innovative experience for the visitors in close partnership with small and medium enterprises. The key focus areas of STB are enhancing position of Singapore as a leading convention and exhibition city in Asia, developing the country as a leading Asian leisure destination and establishing Singapore as service centre of Asia. According to the Singapore tourism board act, the functions of the management include: Promotion and development of Singapore as a tourist destination Advice the government on matters regarding tourism Maximise the contribution of tourism sector to the national economy. Regulation functions of tourism enterprises Develop new tourism products Develop destination marketing campaigns Encourage investments in tourism infrastructure Tourism policies DMO of Singapore is well aware of the total system definition of the country as a tourist destination since its independence, which is evident from well defined, efficient and dynamic tourism policies. The management of tourism in Singapore has undergone assorted changes over decades and the current tourism strategies are based on three focuses; elevating its position as leading exhibition and convention city in Asia with strong and dynamic business environment, leading Asian leisure destination, and the service centre of Asia. The embracing cause of opposite policies as good as strategies directed during compelling and championing tourism in Singapore has been theme to socio mercantile changes upon an internal as well as tellurian fronts. A deeper bargain of issues regarding tourism growth in Singapore necessitates an examination of a behind belligerent of these hurdles as they describe to sold amicable mercantile as good as domestic conditions of Singapore. Singapore tourism board has sought to be variable to changes in a wider socio mercantile environment. Tourism policies as well as strategies have to illustrate mostly corresponded to tellurian forces conversion trends in tourism as well as mercantile growth and responded to internal factors such as becoming different amicable conditions in a city state. Branding marketing strategy The dramatic improvement in Singapores technology has lead to a shift in its brand strategy where it was initially known as instant Asia since its independence in 1965. After a period of time, Singapore tourism board has deployed the brand Uniquely Singapore (government of Singapore 2006) to showcase the identity of the country, which has now evolved as yoursingapore. Different ministries and statutory bodies of Singapore are marketing the country with different brands using different images. For this reason, Singapore has an umbrella positioning exercise in place to coordinate the efforts of different agencies and statutory bodies. STB has derived well thought out strategies to communicate the brand image to all domestic and overseas stakeholders and of course the potential travellers. Singapore has recognised the potential value of the brands and has well addressed the matter by employing professional marketing methods and strategies. It also realises the potential of mega events in promoting the brand and is doing the best to attract such events to the country in conjunction with the government (for example, formulae one race and youth Olympics). Initiatives have also been taken to boost up the brand image through media and technology which could bring about a great positive impact to the countrys reputation. STB communicates the brand yoursingapore through its 18 overseas offices and various media like advertising, photography, brochures, online initiatives and also the film industry (film in Singapore scheme). The website www.yoursingapore.com delivers a new experience that no other tourism destinations are currently offering. STB gives equal importance to brand awareness by travellers as well as residents and several initiatives has been taken in macro and micro level to address this. It also claims that the brand is globally well known which is apparent from awareness and recall among the target markets. A few surveys have ranked Singapores brand among the top in terms of all roundedness, consistency, economic environment and supremacy. STB is also striving to associate the brand with positive aspects like place of opportunity, creativity, research and development. Since the size of the country is smaller, its comparatively easy for STB to represent the country in a holistic way without a dilemma of which one to focus on. Singapore sees branding as a platform for marketing, advertising and public relations efforts of the country. Realising the fact that Singapore is already advanced in landscape and technology, the marketing focus has shifted from hard aspects to soft aspects like lifestyle, visitor experience and innovative tourism products and services. This is evident from a number of new tourism developmental strategies implemented to achieve the vision of tourism sector to be a leading economic development agency in tourism, known for partnership, innovation and excellence. The above said strategies include promotion and encouragement of diversity, experimentation, innovation, high level of customer service, IT oriented business frame, strategic alliance and so on which underpins the destination vision. The country is well addressing the issue of transforming the old mindset of international audience and market the current reality as a dynamic and culturally vivacious city. Singapore is also an example of glocalisation (Foley M. et.al 2006) by increasingly differentiating visitors, by invention of consumer traditions in terms of marketing. Product / Facility development strategy With the image of a high tech city, tourism products and services of Singapore has always been revolving around technology, regardless of the fact that the adoption of technology in tourism sector is comparatively low. The product and service development in tourism, hospitality and retail sector is being differentiated with the 10 year master plan of technology namely intelligent nation 2015 (iN2015). iN2015 is a master strategy to maximise the use of technology in all economic sectors including tourism across Singapore. iWealth is another management policy under iN2015, seeks to strengthen Singapore as a wealth management centre. It also promote investments and product development to enable better risk management and timely market of innovative products and services. With a clear pragmatic vision of tourism and hospitality industry, the strategies are concentrated on three main areas. In the first strategy, the outlook has gone beyond visitor experience to superior visitor experience with seamless and personalised service. The two programmes under this strategy are digital concierge and speedy registration for visitors. The second strategy focuses on improving industry efficiency by adopting more technology and supply chain integration, where as the third policy ponder on evolution of new ideas utilising technology in the tourism industry. The funding for instigating technology in tourism is well taken care by the government with a scheme called tourism technology fund of S$10 million, which is a catalyst for iN2015 to transform the tourism industry and sustain long term. In addition, STB is also looking forward for huge projects like worlds best shopping complex in orchard road and iconic resorts to improve tourism attractions. Financial policy The tourism industry in Singapore has got a great level of political will and support which consequently lead to sound economic policies for developing and sustaining tourism growth. Tourism industry in Singapore is funded 100% through STB, by the government, from hotel room night taxes, (SRI international 1999) which is 4.6% of the total government expenditure. Apart from this STB also receives funds from private sector for joint ventures. STB is a spearhead for tourism development in close collaboration with public and private sectors to adapt a comprehensive and holistic approach to build a strong economic policy to derive greater economic growth. The abolition of its long standing prohibition of gambling and casinos by the government resulted in huge increase in visitor arrivals and subsequently larger economic growth. As such, liberalisation and long-short term incentives in the transport industry have lead Singapore to emerge as a marine and aviation hub in Asia. STB in association with the government has come up with various economic policies to assist areas like investment promotion, product and industry development, financial grants and tax incentives to further develop Singapore as a tourist destination and sustain the economic growth. The economic policies are as follows; Tourism development assistance scheme (TDAS) to accelerate the pace of tourism development in Singapore. Double tax deduction for inbound tourism promotion and local trade exhibitions to encourage private sector to market Singapore in local and overseas trade fairs and exhibitions. Investment allowance scheme for flagship concepts to promote investments in small and medium enterprises and entertainment. Concessionary tax rate for mega events to attract event organisers to stage Singapore for mega events. Film in Singapore scheme (FSS) to encourage and attract film makers to shoot in Singapore (Consider the positive image created for Newzealand through the film lord of the rings). BE in Singapore incentive scheme to promote and expand business events in Singapore. Assessment of strategies Branding positioning The branding strategy of Singapore largely influences the way they want their target market and the tourism industry as a whole to view the country in terms of tourist attractions just as the way it should be according to Ritchie and Crouch (2003). YourSingapore differentiates Singapores worth tender from which of competitors; ensuring Singapore stays applicable as well as constrained to todays travellers, as code equity as well as code recall impact visitor arrivals as well as tourism receipts. YourSingapore is an innovative judgment which focuses upon personalisation as well as an aberration of Singapore and knowledge to any visitor. It uses a smart platform, www.yoursingapore.com, to simply capacitate travellers to renovate their preferred Singapore experience into reality. Yoursingapores digital approach in branding/positioning, blogging, social media monitoring, and travel e-commerce can aggressively enhance pre-experience selection, such as identification, differentiation, anti cipation, expectation and re assurance, while promising truth in the advertising policy as Crouch and Ritchie recommends. Consolidation and reinforcement of post -experience recollection is also successfully accomplished by the brand image of Singapore with its efficient communication network. The idea of brand umbrella also helps STB to consolidate the efforts of different agencies in Singapore to market it and at the same time coordinating and enhancing the status of the whole community. While the brand images position the destination among the target markets, the policy of changing the brand names by Singapore from instant Asia to Uniquely Singapore and further to yoursingapore is to be scanned for what impacts it brings about in the mind of tourists around the globe. STBs Assistant chief executive of marketing Ken Low justifies the policy that a brands life span is not more than seven years. But it should be considered that many other brand campaigns have been in action for decades and still efficient. Product / Facility development This stage of planning phase of singapore could be considered as efficient and effective as they are well directed towards two themes out of three, prescribed by Crouch Ritchie such as facility planning for competent destination, new and innovative event development for tourism attractions enhancement. However, strategies for expanding and strengthening STB through memberships are not detectable in the tourism policy context of Singapore. It can be seen that the nature of Singapore tourism policies is governing the tourism sector solely by public sector with limited private sector participation, which is indeed competent. iN2015 would be a great advantage for tourism products and service development in Singapore considering the current unprofessional operations in a major part of food and retail sector which often results in creating undesired visitor interpretations. The project is expected to provide the individual tourists with satisfying and challenging experiences to a great extend. Financial resource strategy The rapid growth of industries reveals the efficiency of economic policies of Singapore ever since it is independent and when it comes to the new era policies for tourism economy, the constant increase in tourism receipts which reached S$15 billion in 2008 divulges its effectiveness. As recommended by Ritchie and crouch (2003) and Tourism Working Group, aggressive strategies are developed to attract global players for investment promotion, thus raising more capital through taxes from private sector for tourism growth. Investment allowance scheme, BE in Singapore scheme, and concessionary tax rates along with free trade policy are a few examples of these policies. These are key financial policies to increase tax returns with other supplementing strategies, considering that tourism industry in Singapore is 100% funded by the government through taxes from the tourism business itself. There are no visible policies of raising debt and equity capital or direct funding from private sector w hich is not much necessary for Singapore with greater business investments from foreign and private sector. Apart from public funding, STB also aims to encourage investments from private sector for infrastructure development and joint tourism promotional campaigns. In contrast, Singapore has a mix of well defined public and private sector funding policies, which is an ideal model of financial resource policy. The cost effectiveness of policies like tax deduction and non tax incentives on offer is, however, open to question. Conclusion From the analysis and assessment, it is evident that Singapore has a proactive approach which tries to achieve a vivacious tourism destination through forward planning, timely interventions, policy and infrastructural development. Whereas, the positive outcomes of destination development may be attributed to integration, flexibility and strong aspiration of the policy and strategy. The involvement of the government in tourism has been positive and likely to be continued so. Most policies of STB and government seem to serve the tourism practitioners better, rather than policy makers. This is a key component of policies in order to encourage practitioners to implement theoretical policies into practice. Success of Singapore as a sustainable and competent tourism destination depends mostly upon the effectiveness and efficiency of policy and planning, as far as Singapore tourism board is examined. The balanced brand strategy of Singapore positions itself in its niche markets, whereas, marketing, product development and financial policies acts as a catalyst to boost up tourism receipts at the same time, sustainably competing in the international tourism market.